But it\u2019s true. Few people realise that Britain harbours fragments of a globally rare habitat: temperate rainforest. Rainforests aren\u2019t just confined to hot, tropical countries; they also exist in temperate climates.<\/p>\n
What is a temperate rainforest?<\/h2>\n ![\""In\"]( "\\"\"Woodland\\"")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div> Ferns and mosses at Dewerstone Wood near Shaugh Bridge on Dartmoor.\/Credit: Getty<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\nA temperate rainforest is a wood where it\u2019s wet and mild enough for plants to grow on other plants. Temperate rainforest is actually rarer than the tropical variety: it covers just one per cent of the world\u2019s surface.<\/p>\n
The temperate rainforest \u2018biome\u2019, or set of ecosystems, is strung across the globe, in areas where oceanic currents bring warm winds and torrential downpours. Rainforests exist along the Pacific north-west coast of the USA and Canada; on Chile\u2019s southern edge; in Japan and Korea; across Tasmania and New Zealand; and along the western seaboard of Europe \u2013 particularly the Atlantic fringes of Britain.<\/p>\n
It\u2019s hard to appreciate the awe and beauty of a temperate rainforest without visiting one yourself. Their rarity and remoteness mean most people in Britain have probably never seen one. So let me take you on a journey into Britain\u2019s lost, forgotten rainforests.<\/p>\n More related content:<\/p>\n
- Guide to Britain\u2019s lichens \u2013 what are they, where to find and how to identify<\/a><\/li>\n
- British tree guide: how to identify and where to see<\/a><\/li>\n
- Best forests and woodlands to visit in the UK<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>
<\/p><\/div> <\/section>
How to explore a temperate rainforest<\/h2>\n ![\""Tangled\"]( "\\"\"UK,\\"")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div> Wistmans Wood on Dartmoor is one of the best-known examples of a rainforest in the UK.\/Credit: Getty<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\nAll woods are green in summer, of course: but our rainforests are green all year round, due to the plethora of mosses and lichens<\/a> clinging to their branches. Even when the leaves have fallen from the trees, they glow with a verdant luminosity.<\/p>\nA visit to a rainforest feels like going into a cathedral. Sunlight streams through the stained-glass windows of translucent leaves, picking out the arches of tree trunks with their haloes of moss. They\u2019re places that at once teem with life and yet have a sepulchral stillness to them. Small wonder the Celtic druids once revered them as sacred groves.<\/p>\n
The trees that make up Britain\u2019s rainforests are both familiar and strangely alien. The mainstay of our wet Atlantic woods are oak trees<\/a>. Yet they\u2019re quite unlike the tall, straight oaks of lowland England. By contrast, our rainforest oaks tend to be stunted and small, windblown and gnarled \u2013 hunched low to the ground to withstand the Atlantic gales, their roots clutching at the thin upland soils.<\/p>\nThe limbs of these magical trees are often bent and contorted into outlandish shapes. In their winding trunks, a thousand imaginary faces glower; their twisted branches the stuff of fairy tales. Out of their boughs have sprung legends of ghostly hounds and horned hunters, green men and pixies.\u00a0Half-forgotten memories of our rainforests are woven into our myths and legends, and feature fleetingly in poetry and prose from some of our greatest writers.<\/p>\n
Which species live in a temperate rainforest?<\/h2>\nTrees<\/h3>\n ![\""Hareshaw\"]( "\\"\"Hareshaw\\"\/")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div> The damp, deep gorge leading to Hareshaw Linn has the atmosphere of an ancient rainforest\/Credit: Getty<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\nOaks<\/a> aren\u2019t the only tree in our temperate rainforests. They also teem with holly, birch, rowan, hazel and ash, the species mix of British rainforests varying in different parts of the country. In windswept upland areas, hardy hawthorn does well, its spiky branches protecting it from munching sheep. On wetter ground, closer to streams and brooks, goat willow thrives. In Scottish rainforests, birch tends to predominate, alongside sessile oaks. The west coast of Scotland also boasts some extremely rare ancient hazel woods, dating back thousands of years.<\/p>\nEpiphytes \u2013 the plants that grow on other plants<\/h3>\n ![\""Lichens,\"]( "\\"\"Sycamore\\"")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div> A host of plants grow on this sycamore tree. Plants that grow on other plants are called epiphytes.\/Credit: Getty<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\nWhat really marks out a temperate rainforest, however, isn\u2019t the dominant species of tree, but rather the other plants growing on them. Epiphytes \u2013 plants that grow on other plants \u2013 are a key indicator of rainforest. Epiphytic plants aren\u2019t parasites; they simply use the trees as scaffolding and soak up nutrients from the rain and dampness surrounding them.<\/p>\n
Lichens and mosses<\/h3>\n
In Britain, the most common epiphytes are lichens, bryophytes \u2013 a grouping that includes both mosses and liverworts \u2013 and ferns. The more lichens<\/a>, mosses and ferns<\/a> you can see growing on the branches or trunks of trees, the more likely it is that you\u2019re standing in a rainforest.<\/p>\nLichens and mosses are small and can be hard to identify; but easier to spot from a distance are the polypody ferns that sprout from Britain\u2019s rainforest trees. These beautiful, delicate plants love the damp shade and humidity of our western oakwoods. The translucent fronds of polypodies lend a furry green aura to each tree they grow on, particularly when sunlight glows through them. \u2018Polypody\u2019, meaning \u2018many-footed\u2019, refers to the fern\u2019s method of spreading. It sends out horizontal roots called rhizomes that creep along branches, step-by-step, sending up fresh shoots at each interval.<\/p>\n
Birds<\/h3>\n ![\""Pied\"]( "\\"\"Pied\\"\/")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div> European Pied Flycatcher -Ficedula hypoleuca-, male with an insect in its beak perched on a branch \u00a9Getty<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\nRainforests are home to more than just trees. Their canopies support a rich and diverse bird fauna. Besides the usual species of British woodland birds, our western oakwoods are particularly good habitats for threatened wood warblers<\/a>, declining pied flycatchers, and the fire-tailed redstarts. One bird in particular is vital to the survival of Britain\u2019s rainforests: the jay<\/a>, with its blue-and-black striped wing feathers. Its appetite for acorns makes it nature\u2019s chief planter of oak trees. Jays will carry acorns far from their mother tree, bury them in the earth for safekeeping and then forget where some of them have been stashed; the survivors grow into new oaks.<\/p>\nJust how wet are temperate rainforests?<\/h2>\n
Perhaps so far I\u2019ve given too sunny a description of these rainy forests. Their usual weather, of course, is wet. Really wet. If you\u2019re lucky enough to visit them when the sun\u2019s shining, you\u2019re not really seeing them at their best. For most of the year, they drip continuously with moisture, drip from their canopies, drip from every branch and leaf and stem. You\u2019ll return from a visit to a British rainforest soaked from head to toe, but feeling all the more alive for it.<\/p>\n
While rain brings life, it also brings decay: dead wood rots. But that decay in itself brings forth more life; fungal life. Gelatinous wood-ear fungus spawns from decomposing branches. Giant bracket fungi<\/a> protrude from rotting trunks, large as dinner plates \u2013 their upsides hard like clam shells, their undersides white and fleshy. Most outlandish of all is the hazel gloves fungus, unique to temperate rainforests, whose orange lobes resemble creeping fingers.<\/p>\n More related content:<\/p>\n
- British wild mushroom and fungi guide: how to identify and where to find<\/a><\/li>\n
- Bracket fungi guide: common UK species and identification<\/a><\/li>\n
- Jay guide: how to identify, behaviour and where to see in Britain<\/a><\/li>\n
- Warblers guide: UK species and how to identify<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>
<\/p><\/div> <\/section>
What happened to Britain\u2019s rainforests?<\/h2>\n
The awful truth is that we destroyed them. As Stone Age hunter-gatherers developed agriculture and started settling, they began to clear the Wildwood for farmland with flint axes, fire and browsing livestock.<\/p>\n
As stone tools were replaced first by bronze ones and later by iron, hacking down the Wildwood became easier. The zone of destruction also moved from the lowlands to the uplands.<\/p>\n
Yet many areas of rainforest escaped the destruction of the Wildwood, surviving into more recent centuries. Some lasted long enough to make their way into the historical record: Wistman\u2019s Wood<\/a> on Dartmoor, Coed Felenrhyd in north Wales, Keskadale in the Lakes. Some succumbed to medieval tin-miners; some to Victorian charcoal-burners; others to the nibbling teeth of sheep. Unforgivably, some of Britain\u2019s rainforests were destroyed as recently as the 20th century, felled by landowners and the Forestry Commission in the name of timber production<\/a>. Britain was once a rainforest nation. But we lost most of our rainforests.<\/p>\nMapping our rainforests<\/h2>\n
Why was there no proper map of where Britain\u2019s temperate rainforests survive, I wondered? The more experts I spoke to \u2013 the more lichenologists, climatologists and mapmakers I called on for help \u2013 the less certain I became that this precious habitat was fully understood.<\/p>\n
So I decided to start a blog, \u2018Lost Rainforests of Britain\u2019<\/a>, to try to drum up public support for protecting and restoring these amazing places. I created a Google Map to gather together examples of where fragments of our rainforests cling on, adding locations that my partner Louisa and I had visited. To launch the blog, I put a call-out on Twitter for people to send in photos of potential rainforest sites they had visited, thinking that at best it might generate a handful of new leads.<\/p>\nI was overwhelmed by the response. Hundreds of people sent me submissions for the map, deluging me with photos of the beautiful wet woodlands that they knew and loved; photos of trees covered in mosses and ferns, thriving in hidden valleys and inaccessible gorges up and down the western edge of Britain. My email inbox overflowed with excited messages of support, expressing surprise and delight at the realisation that the woods they had been walking in turned out to be temperate rainforest.<\/p>\n
We are haunted by a folk memory of the great Wildwood that once covered Britain, whose outlines occasionally resurface not just in our myths but also in pollen cores and fossil evidence. Doing something to repair the damage done to our own rainforests here in Britain \u2013 \u201cthis other Eden\u201d, this \u201cgreen and pleasant land\u201d, as our greatest playwrights and poets would have it \u2013 feels like a redemptive quest. In restoring them, we might yet restore a missing part of ourselves.<\/p>\n
Because our rainforests aren\u2019t irrevocably lost. Fragments survive. And as I was to discover, in some parts of Britain rainforests still thrive. Far from being dying relics from some bygone era, they are living ecosystems \u2013 growing, regenerating and spreading, whenever they are given half a chance. As Jeff Goldblum memorably intones in Jurassic Park: \u201cLife\u2026 finds a way.\u201d<\/p>\n
Five great British rainforests to discover<\/h2>\nTy Canol, Pembrokeshire, Wales<\/a><\/h4>\n\u00a0<\/p>\n
An emerald jewel of moss-covered boulders and gnarled, dripping trees, people have co-existed with this wood for thousands of years. Look out for the nearby Neolithic burial chamber at Pentre Ifan.<\/p>\n
Glasdrum, Argyll<\/a><\/h4>\nSome of the trees here are so heavily garlanded in weird and wonderful lichens you can no longer see their bark. Look out for Collema fasciculare, a jelly lichen that resembles a bug-eyed monster.<\/p>\n
White Wood, Dartmoor<\/a><\/h4>\nThis stunning expanse of Atlantic oakwood looks positively Amazonian when viewed from Bench Tor. In spring, enter its depths along the footpath to glimpse pied flycatchers.<\/p>\n
Ariundle Oakwood, Highlands of Scotland<\/a><\/h4>\nA glorious old-growth rainforest, abundant with the bright green lichen known as tree lungwort and its blue cousin Lobaria scrobiculata.<\/p>\n
Lustleigh Cleave, Devon<\/a><\/h4>\nThe site of an \u2018accidental rainforest\u2019, this common has spectacularly regenerated over the past century, so that what was once bare moorland is now carpeted with lush woodland dripping with mosses and liverworts.<\/p>\n
![\""In\"](\""https:\/\/images.immediate.co.uk\/production\/volatile\/sites\/22\/2023\/05\/GettyImages-1364021275-4dad190.jpg?quality=90&resize=619%2C413"\" "\\"\"Woodland\\"")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div>A temperate rainforest is a wood where it\u2019s wet and mild enough for plants to grow on other plants. Temperate rainforest is actually rarer than the tropical variety: it covers just one per cent of the world\u2019s surface.<\/p>\n
The temperate rainforest \u2018biome\u2019, or set of ecosystems, is strung across the globe, in areas where oceanic currents bring warm winds and torrential downpours. Rainforests exist along the Pacific north-west coast of the USA and Canada; on Chile\u2019s southern edge; in Japan and Korea; across Tasmania and New Zealand; and along the western seaboard of Europe \u2013 particularly the Atlantic fringes of Britain.<\/p>\n
It\u2019s hard to appreciate the awe and beauty of a temperate rainforest without visiting one yourself. Their rarity and remoteness mean most people in Britain have probably never seen one. So let me take you on a journey into Britain\u2019s lost, forgotten rainforests.<\/p>\n More related content:<\/p>\n <\/p><\/div> <\/section> All woods are green in summer, of course: but our rainforests are green all year round, due to the plethora of mosses and lichens<\/a> clinging to their branches. Even when the leaves have fallen from the trees, they glow with a verdant luminosity.<\/p>\n A visit to a rainforest feels like going into a cathedral. Sunlight streams through the stained-glass windows of translucent leaves, picking out the arches of tree trunks with their haloes of moss. They\u2019re places that at once teem with life and yet have a sepulchral stillness to them. Small wonder the Celtic druids once revered them as sacred groves.<\/p>\n The trees that make up Britain\u2019s rainforests are both familiar and strangely alien. The mainstay of our wet Atlantic woods are oak trees<\/a>. Yet they\u2019re quite unlike the tall, straight oaks of lowland England. By contrast, our rainforest oaks tend to be stunted and small, windblown and gnarled \u2013 hunched low to the ground to withstand the Atlantic gales, their roots clutching at the thin upland soils.<\/p>\n The limbs of these magical trees are often bent and contorted into outlandish shapes. In their winding trunks, a thousand imaginary faces glower; their twisted branches the stuff of fairy tales. Out of their boughs have sprung legends of ghostly hounds and horned hunters, green men and pixies.\u00a0Half-forgotten memories of our rainforests are woven into our myths and legends, and feature fleetingly in poetry and prose from some of our greatest writers.<\/p>\n Oaks<\/a> aren\u2019t the only tree in our temperate rainforests. They also teem with holly, birch, rowan, hazel and ash, the species mix of British rainforests varying in different parts of the country. In windswept upland areas, hardy hawthorn does well, its spiky branches protecting it from munching sheep. On wetter ground, closer to streams and brooks, goat willow thrives. In Scottish rainforests, birch tends to predominate, alongside sessile oaks. The west coast of Scotland also boasts some extremely rare ancient hazel woods, dating back thousands of years.<\/p>\n What really marks out a temperate rainforest, however, isn\u2019t the dominant species of tree, but rather the other plants growing on them. Epiphytes \u2013 plants that grow on other plants \u2013 are a key indicator of rainforest. Epiphytic plants aren\u2019t parasites; they simply use the trees as scaffolding and soak up nutrients from the rain and dampness surrounding them.<\/p>\n In Britain, the most common epiphytes are lichens, bryophytes \u2013 a grouping that includes both mosses and liverworts \u2013 and ferns. The more lichens<\/a>, mosses and ferns<\/a> you can see growing on the branches or trunks of trees, the more likely it is that you\u2019re standing in a rainforest.<\/p>\n Lichens and mosses are small and can be hard to identify; but easier to spot from a distance are the polypody ferns that sprout from Britain\u2019s rainforest trees. These beautiful, delicate plants love the damp shade and humidity of our western oakwoods. The translucent fronds of polypodies lend a furry green aura to each tree they grow on, particularly when sunlight glows through them. \u2018Polypody\u2019, meaning \u2018many-footed\u2019, refers to the fern\u2019s method of spreading. It sends out horizontal roots called rhizomes that creep along branches, step-by-step, sending up fresh shoots at each interval.<\/p>\n Rainforests are home to more than just trees. Their canopies support a rich and diverse bird fauna. Besides the usual species of British woodland birds, our western oakwoods are particularly good habitats for threatened wood warblers<\/a>, declining pied flycatchers, and the fire-tailed redstarts. One bird in particular is vital to the survival of Britain\u2019s rainforests: the jay<\/a>, with its blue-and-black striped wing feathers. Its appetite for acorns makes it nature\u2019s chief planter of oak trees. Jays will carry acorns far from their mother tree, bury them in the earth for safekeeping and then forget where some of them have been stashed; the survivors grow into new oaks.<\/p>\n Perhaps so far I\u2019ve given too sunny a description of these rainy forests. Their usual weather, of course, is wet. Really wet. If you\u2019re lucky enough to visit them when the sun\u2019s shining, you\u2019re not really seeing them at their best. For most of the year, they drip continuously with moisture, drip from their canopies, drip from every branch and leaf and stem. You\u2019ll return from a visit to a British rainforest soaked from head to toe, but feeling all the more alive for it.<\/p>\n While rain brings life, it also brings decay: dead wood rots. But that decay in itself brings forth more life; fungal life. Gelatinous wood-ear fungus spawns from decomposing branches. Giant bracket fungi<\/a> protrude from rotting trunks, large as dinner plates \u2013 their upsides hard like clam shells, their undersides white and fleshy. Most outlandish of all is the hazel gloves fungus, unique to temperate rainforests, whose orange lobes resemble creeping fingers.<\/p>\n More related content:<\/p>\n <\/p><\/div> <\/section> The awful truth is that we destroyed them. As Stone Age hunter-gatherers developed agriculture and started settling, they began to clear the Wildwood for farmland with flint axes, fire and browsing livestock.<\/p>\n As stone tools were replaced first by bronze ones and later by iron, hacking down the Wildwood became easier. The zone of destruction also moved from the lowlands to the uplands.<\/p>\n Yet many areas of rainforest escaped the destruction of the Wildwood, surviving into more recent centuries. Some lasted long enough to make their way into the historical record: Wistman\u2019s Wood<\/a> on Dartmoor, Coed Felenrhyd in north Wales, Keskadale in the Lakes. Some succumbed to medieval tin-miners; some to Victorian charcoal-burners; others to the nibbling teeth of sheep. Unforgivably, some of Britain\u2019s rainforests were destroyed as recently as the 20th century, felled by landowners and the Forestry Commission in the name of timber production<\/a>. Britain was once a rainforest nation. But we lost most of our rainforests.<\/p>\n Why was there no proper map of where Britain\u2019s temperate rainforests survive, I wondered? The more experts I spoke to \u2013 the more lichenologists, climatologists and mapmakers I called on for help \u2013 the less certain I became that this precious habitat was fully understood.<\/p>\n So I decided to start a blog, \u2018Lost Rainforests of Britain\u2019<\/a>, to try to drum up public support for protecting and restoring these amazing places. I created a Google Map to gather together examples of where fragments of our rainforests cling on, adding locations that my partner Louisa and I had visited. To launch the blog, I put a call-out on Twitter for people to send in photos of potential rainforest sites they had visited, thinking that at best it might generate a handful of new leads.<\/p>\n I was overwhelmed by the response. Hundreds of people sent me submissions for the map, deluging me with photos of the beautiful wet woodlands that they knew and loved; photos of trees covered in mosses and ferns, thriving in hidden valleys and inaccessible gorges up and down the western edge of Britain. My email inbox overflowed with excited messages of support, expressing surprise and delight at the realisation that the woods they had been walking in turned out to be temperate rainforest.<\/p>\n We are haunted by a folk memory of the great Wildwood that once covered Britain, whose outlines occasionally resurface not just in our myths but also in pollen cores and fossil evidence. Doing something to repair the damage done to our own rainforests here in Britain \u2013 \u201cthis other Eden\u201d, this \u201cgreen and pleasant land\u201d, as our greatest playwrights and poets would have it \u2013 feels like a redemptive quest. In restoring them, we might yet restore a missing part of ourselves.<\/p>\n Because our rainforests aren\u2019t irrevocably lost. Fragments survive. And as I was to discover, in some parts of Britain rainforests still thrive. Far from being dying relics from some bygone era, they are living ecosystems \u2013 growing, regenerating and spreading, whenever they are given half a chance. As Jeff Goldblum memorably intones in Jurassic Park: \u201cLife\u2026 finds a way.\u201d<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/p>\n An emerald jewel of moss-covered boulders and gnarled, dripping trees, people have co-existed with this wood for thousands of years. Look out for the nearby Neolithic burial chamber at Pentre Ifan.<\/p>\n Some of the trees here are so heavily garlanded in weird and wonderful lichens you can no longer see their bark. Look out for Collema fasciculare, a jelly lichen that resembles a bug-eyed monster.<\/p>\n This stunning expanse of Atlantic oakwood looks positively Amazonian when viewed from Bench Tor. In spring, enter its depths along the footpath to glimpse pied flycatchers.<\/p>\n A glorious old-growth rainforest, abundant with the bright green lichen known as tree lungwort and its blue cousin Lobaria scrobiculata.<\/p>\n The site of an \u2018accidental rainforest\u2019, this common has spectacularly regenerated over the past century, so that what was once bare moorland is now carpeted with lush woodland dripping with mosses and liverworts.<\/p>\nHow to explore a temperate rainforest<\/h2>\n
![\""Tangled\"](\""https:\/\/images.immediate.co.uk\/production\/volatile\/sites\/22\/2023\/05\/GettyImages-1487478656-d3cb6a1.jpg?quality=90&resize=619%2C413"\" "\\"\"UK,\\"")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div>Which species live in a temperate rainforest?<\/h2>\n
Trees<\/h3>\n
![\""Hareshaw\"](\""https:\/\/images.immediate.co.uk\/production\/volatile\/sites\/22\/2020\/08\/Hareshaw-Linn-Bellingham-Northumberland-1871994.jpg?quality=90&resize=620%2C413"\" "\\"\"Hareshaw\\"\/")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div>Epiphytes \u2013 the plants that grow on other plants<\/h3>\n
![\""Lichens,\"](\""https:\/\/images.immediate.co.uk\/production\/volatile\/sites\/22\/2023\/05\/GettyImages-1215123281-e671a5f.jpg?quality=90&resize=611%2C413"\" "\\"\"Sycamore\\"")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div>Lichens and mosses<\/h3>\n
Birds<\/h3>\n
![\""Pied\"](\""https:\/\/images.immediate.co.uk\/production\/volatile\/sites\/22\/2019\/02\/Pied-flycatcher-5f99b6e.jpg?quality=90&resize=620%2C413"\" "\\"\"Pied\\"\/")
<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div>Just how wet are temperate rainforests?<\/h2>\n
What happened to Britain\u2019s rainforests?<\/h2>\n
Mapping our rainforests<\/h2>\n
Five great British rainforests to discover<\/h2>\n
Ty Canol, Pembrokeshire, Wales<\/a><\/h4>\n
Glasdrum, Argyll<\/a><\/h4>\n
White Wood, Dartmoor<\/a><\/h4>\n
Ariundle Oakwood, Highlands of Scotland<\/a><\/h4>\n
Lustleigh Cleave, Devon<\/a><\/h4>\n