{"id":26679,"date":"2023-07-19T11:48:08","date_gmt":"2023-07-19T09:48:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.historyextra.com\/?p=235332"},"modified":"2023-07-19T12:11:42","modified_gmt":"2023-07-19T10:11:42","slug":"was-ramesses-ii-the-greatest-pharaoh-of-ancient-egypt","status":"publish","type":"rss_feed","link":"https:\/\/c01.purpledshub.com\/bbchistory\/rss_feed\/was-ramesses-ii-the-greatest-pharaoh-of-ancient-egypt\/","title":{"rendered":"Was Ramesses II the greatest pharaoh of ancient Egypt?"},"content":{"rendered":"

Ramesses the Great was a genius in the art of self-promotion with epic palaces, jaw-dropping temples and sycophantic scribes all projecting his brilliance. But, asks Toby Wilkinson, do the achievements of Egypt\u2019s \u2018king of kings\u2019 truly justify the hype? <\/p>

By Toby Wilkinson\n \t\t<\/p>

Published: Wednesday, 19 July 2023 at 12:00 am<\/p>

\n\n

In the long annals of ancient Egyptian history, only one pharaoh is accorded the epithet \u2018the Great\u2019: Ramesses II<\/a>, third ruler of the 19th dynasty, who reigned for 66 years and two months in the 13th century BC (1279\u20131213). Lauded, like all pharaohs, during his lifetime, Ramesses also achieved lasting, posthumous fame as an exemplar of royal majesty and might.<\/p>\n

Before the discovery of Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb<\/a> a century ago, Ramesses II was without doubt the most famous pharaoh. When writers wanted to conjure up the world of ancient Egypt<\/a> \u2013 its divine kingship and monumental architecture, its abundance and imperial grandeur \u2013 they thought of Ramesses.<\/p>\n

A simple list of his achievements is impressive enough: he sired more children, and left behind more monuments, than any other pharaoh; he celebrated 13 jubilees and lived into his nineties; he fortified Egypt\u2019s borders, and maintained its commercial and diplomatic influence; he negotiated the earliest known comprehensive peace treaty in history with Egypt\u2019s arch-enemy, and presided over a glittering court which drove innovations in literature, art, architecture and scholarship. But other Egyptian pharaohs<\/a> could \u2013 and did \u2013 claim similar accomplishments.<\/p>\n

What made Ramesses II a truly great king?<\/h2>\n

To examine that question we might first turn to the opening five books of the Hebrew Bible, compiled 700 years after Ramesses\u2019 death, where the pharaoh is mentioned by name no fewer than four times. The Greek writer Herodotus, now regarded as the \u2018father of history\u2019, recounted tales he had heard about a pharaoh called \u2018Rhampsinitus\u2019 and claimed to have seen some of the king\u2019s constructions in the ancient Egyptian capital, Memphis. In the first and second centuries AD, the Roman authors Pliny and Tacitus mentioned \u2018Ramses\u2019 and \u2018Rhamses\u2019 respectively.<\/p>\n

Most influential, in terms of Ramesses\u2019 enduring reputation, was the first-century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus. He had heard of a pharaoh called \u2018Remphis\u2019. Yet when writing about his magnificent memorial temple on the west bank of the Nile opposite modern Luxor (a building known today as the Ramesseum), Diodorus referred to it as the \u201ctomb of Osymandyas\u201d, a garbled Greek rendering of Ramesses\u2019 throne-name, Usermaatra.<\/p>\n

When writers wanted to conjure up the world of ancient Egypt \u2013 its divine kingship and monumental architecture, its abundance and imperial grandeur \u2013 they thought of Ramesses <\/blockquote> <\/div> <\/div> <\/div>\n<\/div>

Thus the legend of Ozymandias was born. Diodorus claimed (fictitiously) to have read an inscription carved into the stones of the temple: \u201cKing of Kings am I, Osymandyas. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works.\u201d These lines would later prove the inspiration for Shelley\u2019s famous sonnet: \u201cMy name is Ozymandias, king of kings \/ Look on my works, ye mighty, and despair!\u201d<\/p>\n

Ozymandias<\/em> was published in January 1818, as a colossal bust of Ramesses II, hauled from its resting place in the Ramesseum, was making its way to England to become the prize exhibit at the British Museum. Its acquisition confirmed 19th-century Britain\u2019s own aspirations: a new empire basking in Ramesses\u2019 aura.<\/p>\n

\""Aerial\"<\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/source><\/picture><\/div>
Aerial view of the \u2018Ramesseum\u2019, Ramesses\u2019 memorial temple on the banks of the Nile, in the Theban Necropolis opposite the modern city of Luxor (Photo by Zoonar GmbH\/Alamy Stock Photo)<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\n

The excitement surrounding Ramesses and his achievements was rekindled, too, in the 20th century. In the 1960s, the Unesco campaign to salvage the monuments of Nubia from the rising waters of Lake Nasser was exemplified by the rescue of Ramesses\u2019 great temples at Abu Simbel. In 1976, the French brought the mummified body of Ramesses to Paris, for conservation and scientific study.<\/p>\n

The dead pharaoh was received with full military honours at Paris\u2019s Le Bourget airport; his return journey to Cairo the following year was in a casket draped with a mantle of deep blue velvet, adorned with the water lily and papyrus (symbolising Upper and Lower Egypt) embroidered in gold thread. Intoxicated with Ramesses\u2019 legend, the wilder elements of the press ran the story that he had been issued with his own passport, listing his occupation as \u201cKing (deceased)\u201d.<\/p>\n

Does Ramesses II deserve his reputation as the greatest pharaoh?<\/h2>\n

Setting aside the hype and hyperbole, was Ramesses II really that \u2018the great\u2019? He certainly had the good fortune to reign at a time when Egyptian power was at its zenith. The New Kingdom (1539\u20131069 BC) was a period of imperial dominance, when the kings of Egypt ruled a territory that extended from Syria to the fourth Nile Cataract, a distance of more than 1,000 miles. Within this vast realm, the pharaohs had access to the great timber stands of Lebanon, the copper mines of Sinai, the gold reserves of Nubia, the trading networks of the near east, and the ports of the eastern Mediterranean.<\/p>\n

Egypt under Ramesses was the richest and most powerful it would ever be. Ramesses used this unprecedented wealth and influence in keeping with the age-old ideal of Egyptian kingship, but also with new-found zeal. The first defining theme of his reign was the projection of Egyptian power in the near east, in particular against Egypt\u2019s arch-rival, the Hittites.<\/p>\n

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The sarcophagus of Ramesses II. Until the discovery of Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, he was the most celebrated of all pharaohs (Photo by ANNE-CHRISTINE POUJOULAT\/AFP via Getty Images)<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\n

Born around 1304 BC, Ramesses himself came from a military family. His grandfather and founder of the 19th dynasty, Ramesses I (reigned 1292\u20131290), after whom he was named, had forged a successful career in the army before being named heir to the throne. Meanwhile, his father, Seti I (r1290\u20131279), was a successful warrior-pharaoh, leading a series of campaigns to secure Egyptian hegemony in the near east, and restoring Egypt\u2019s reputation on the international stage.<\/p>\n

5 of the other \u2018greatest\u2019 pharaohs of Egypt<\/h4>\n

Djoser (reigned c2650\u20132620 BC)<\/h6>\n

Succeeding to the throne after a period of instability, Djoser was the first king of the third dynasty. Presiding over a peaceful and prosperous kingdom, he surrounded himself with a glittering court whose members included the architect and sage Imhotep, later venerated as a god of wisdom and healing.<\/p>\n

Djoser was the first great builder in pharaonic history, and commissioned Egypt\u2019s first large-scale stone monument, the Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara. Later historians regarded Djoser\u2019s reign as marking the start of a new era. In art, architecture and administration, he inaugurated the first flowering of Egyptian civilisation, the Pyramid Age.<\/p>\n

Khufu (reigned c2545\u20132525 BC)<\/h6>\n

Famous as the builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza<\/a>, Khufu reigned over Egypt at the height of the Old Kingdom. The pyramid itself represents an unprecedented feat of architecture and engineering. The administrative apparatus that underpinned pyramid building was equally impressive in scale, and meticulous in planning and execution.<\/p>\n

It included copper mining in Sinai to supply bronze tools, the construction of a new city to house the workers, and the development of new agricultural estates to feed them. But such an ambitious project did little for Khufu\u2019s reputation: he was vilified by later generations as a tyrant.<\/p>\n

Mentuhotep II (reigned c2010\u20131960 BC)<\/h6>\n

Mentuhotep II was regarded by the ancient Egyptians themselves as one of their greatest kings. He reunified the country after a protracted civil war (leading his Theban troops to a decisive victory), reorganised the administration and established his home town of Thebes as a royal and religious capital.<\/p>\n

Mentuhotep built the earliest temple at Karnak and the first memorial temple in western Thebes, but also patronised cults throughout Egypt. He conquered Lower Nubia to secure access to the region\u2019s gold supplies, and was a great patron of the arts, commissioning outstanding reliefs and sculpture.<\/p>\n

Thutmose I (reigned c1493\u20131481 BC)<\/h6>\n

Having been adopted into the 18th dynasty royal family, Thutmose I brought new energy and determination to the kingship. His greatest achievements were as a military leader and empire builder. He extended the borders of Egypt, winning by force of arms a territory that stretched from the banks of the Euphrates in central Syria to the Fourth Nile Cataract in Upper Nubia.<\/p>\n

The wealth that flowed from these conquests made New Kingdom Egypt the dominant power in the near east. Subsequent pharaohs sought to match, but never surpassed, his success on the battlefield.<\/p>\n

Amenhotep III (reigned c1390\u20131353 BC)<\/h6>\n

Known in his lifetime as \u2018the dazzling sun\u2019, Amenhotep III presided over a golden age of pharaonic civilisation. Reaping the rewards of his predecessors\u2019 military achievements, he spent Egypt\u2019s vast wealth on a series of breathtaking monuments, including the solar court of Luxor Temple.<\/p>\n

His memorial temple at western Thebes dwarfed its predecessors, with the Colossi of Memnon standing guard at its entrance. Amenhotep promoted the legend of his own divine birth, and the jubilee celebrations marking the 30th year of his reign were unprecedented in their scale, featuring gilded boats sailing on vast artificial lakes.<\/p>\n

<\/p><\/div> <\/section>

When Ramesses II came to the throne in 1279 BC, a tall, striking, red-haired man in his mid-twenties, he felt the need to maintain \u2013 and if possible enhance \u2013 his father\u2019s and grandfather\u2019s legacy. After a small-scale operation to test the battle readiness of his troops, he launched a major offensive in the spring of 1274.<\/p>\n

Its bold objective was to recapture the strategic city of Kadesh, situated on the river Orontes in northern Syria, which had fallen under Hittite control. Over the previous 50 years, the Hittite kingdom had expanded from its heartland in central Anatolia to become the dominant power across a vast swathe of the near east. This brought it into direct confrontation with the Egyptians. The clash between the two powers at Kadesh would prove the defining event of Ramesses\u2019 reign.<\/p>\n

What happened at the battle of Kadesh?<\/h2>\n

In simple, military terms, the battle of Kadesh was a strategic failure and a near disaster for Egypt. Misinformation relayed by Hittite spies lulled the Egyptian army into a false sense of security. One of the pharaoh\u2019s four divisions was attacked as it headed unsuspectingly towards camp, and panic ensued, troops scattering in all directions.<\/p>\n

Ramesses himself, at the vanguard of his army, was left dangerously exposed, surrounded by enemy chariots. Only the nick-of-time arrival of an Egyptian reserve force saved the day for the pharaoh; the following morning, the Egyptian and Hittite armies fought each other to a stalemate. Ramesses failed to recapture Kadesh, and his army headed home, its tail between its legs.<\/p>\n

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A Hittite copy of the Kadesh peace treaty, which bought Ramesses time to future-proof Egypt\u2019s western defences (Photo by PHAS\/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\n

Ramesses\u2019 genius was to transmute defeat into a myth of his personal heroism, and then to promulgate that myth \u2013 in word and image \u2013 for the rest of his reign, in a relentless propaganda campaign. Royal scribes composed a prose account of the battle (which Egyptologists call \u2018the Bulletin\u2019) and a much longer, epic poem (\u2018the Poem\u2019). Both took as their central theme the leadership, sang froid and bravery of the king, which were pointedly \u2013 and repeatedly \u2013 contrasted with the cravenness and cowardliness of his army:<\/p>\n

There was no officer with me, no charioteer, <\/em>No soldier of the army, no shield bearer. <\/em>My infantry and my chariotry ran away before them [the enemy];<\/em> Not one of them stood firm to fight with them\u2026 <\/em>I am all alone and there is nobody with me! <\/em>My great army has deserted me;<\/em> Not one of my chariotry looks out for me.<\/em> I keep shouting for them, <\/em>But none of them heeds my call<\/em><\/p>\n

This approach was unprecedented in Egyptian literature: earlier kings had asserted superhuman powers of insight and leadership, but always in comparison with foreign enemies, never at the expense of their own subjects. Ramesses\u2019 very personal propaganda campaign broke new ground.<\/p>\n

It was also pursued with unparalleled intensity. The mythologised events of the battle of Kadesh were depicted in two large scale artistic compositions, with the king at their centre, which were then carved on the walls of major temples the length and breadth of Egypt, often on the outside where they could be seen by the general population.<\/p>\n

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Ramesses II slays his Hittite foes in a carving commemorating his \u2018triumph\u2019 at the battle of Kadesh, at the Abu Simbel Temple in southern Egypt (Photo by Universal History Archive\/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\n

Indeed, the second, defining theme of Ramesses\u2019 reign was the projection of his own image \u2013 in word, art and, above all, architecture. In pursuit of this objective, he became the greatest builder in ancient Egyptian history. He appropriated huge numbers of his predecessors\u2019 temples and statues, carving his name over theirs in hieroglyphs cut so deeply that no successor would be able to erase them. (Tourists to Egypt soon learn to recognise the names of Ramesses II, from this feature alone.) He also commissioned a record number of new monuments, on a grander scale than anything seen before or after.<\/p>\n

What building projects did Ramesses II complete?<\/h2>\n

The list of Ramesses\u2019 building projects is astonishing. In Nubia, he constructed a series of eight rock-cut temples, foremost among them the twin temples at Abu Simbel dedicated to the king and his first (and favourite) wife, Nefertari. In western Thebes, in addition to the Ramesseum, he commissioned seven royal tombs: for himself, his chief wives and his children. The tomb of Nefertari ranks as perhaps the most beautiful in Egypt, while the tomb excavated for Ramesses\u2019 sons is the largest discovered in the Valley of the Kings.<\/p>\n

On the opposite bank of the Nile, Ramesses completed the Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak \u2013 the temple\u2019s most impressive feature \u2013 and added a new court and fa\u00e7ade to Luxor Temple, complete with a pair of obelisks and two colossal statues of himself. At Abydos, cradle of Egyptian kingship, he completed his father\u2019s memorial temple and built another for himself.<\/p>\n

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Some of the 134 columns of the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Karnak Temple Complex. It was begun by Seti I and completed by his son, Ramesses II (Photo by hadynyah\/Getty Images)<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\n

He made extensive additions at the temples of Heliopolis and Memphis, and he added new shrines at sites from Buto in the north-western Delta to Gebel el-Silsila in the southern Nile Valley. Brand new temples were erected at Herakleopolis and Sheikh Ibada, and a string of forts constructed along Egypt\u2019s border with Libya.<\/p>\n

Surpassing all these was Ramesses\u2019 most ambitious project, begun at the start of his reign: the transformation of his father\u2019s summer palace in the north-eastern Delta into a vast new imperial capital. It was named, with typical bombast, \u2018The House of Ramesses beloved of Amun, great of victories\u2019. Per-Ramesses, as it is known today, covered an area of some 250 acres. It was a city of waterways, extensive residential neighbourhoods and grand temples; its numerous places of worship catering to a multicultural and multi-faith population, constituted perhaps the greatest collection of religious foundations ever built by a single ruler.<\/p>\n

Per-Ramesses, as it is known today, covered an area of some 250 acres. It was a city of waterways, extensive residential neighbourhoods and grand temples; its numerous places of worship catering to a multicultural and multi-faith population <\/blockquote> <\/div> <\/div> <\/div>\n<\/div>

Per-Ramesses also had a magnificent complex of palace buildings, complete with ornamental pleasure gardens and a royal zoo. \u201cIt is a very beautiful place that, although it resembles Thebes, has no equal,\u201d observed an early visitor named Pabasa. \u201cLife in the residence is pleasant; its fields abound with all sorts of good produce; each day it is well endowed with good food. Its canals are filled with fish, and its marshlands with birds\u2026 Its granaries are filled with barley and wheat.\u201d<\/p>\n

And that was not all. Per-Ramesses was also designed, from the outset, as a military base. It had a royal stud with stabling for 460 horses, a huge chariotry garrison, and a bronze foundry covering more than seven acres (the largest known from the ancient world), complete with specialised, high-temperature furnaces for the production of weapons. Military-industrial complex, royal residence, commercial centre, religious and ceremonial capital: Per-Ramesses epitomised the vaunting ambition of its royal creator.<\/p>\n

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Two monumental statues of Ramesses II at Luxor Temple. The complex predated the pharaoh, but that didn\u2019t stop him putting his stamp upon it (Photo by Panther Media GmbH\/Alamy Stock Photo)<\/span><\/figcaption><\/div>\n

From the moment he came to the throne, Ramesses had one eye on his inheritance \u2013 determined to prove a worthy successor to his father and grandfather \u2013 and another on his legacy \u2013 determined to ensure the legitimacy and continuation of the dynasty.<\/p>\n

These two preoccupations coloured the tenor of his reign and all his major decisions: to campaign against the Hittites at Kadesh; to mythologise the outcome of the battle; to build on an unprecedented scale; to commission his own historical research (the compilation of Egypt\u2019s most accurate lists of kings); to promote his own deification, in his own lifetime; and to father a record number of offspring (at least 50 sons and as many daughters).<\/p>\n

What is the legacy of Ramesses II?<\/h3>\n

For all the self-aggrandisement and jaw-dropping architecture, Ramesses\u2019 record of achievement was mixed. On the positive side of the ledger, the battle of Kadesh, though a strategic failure, paved the way for a diplomatic triumph: a comprehensive peace treaty with the Hittites which ushered in an era of stability across the near east. The \u2018peace dividend\u2019 enabled Ramesses to concentrate on his building projects, including the fortification of Egypt\u2019s western frontier, thus safeguarding the country from invasion a century later when many other civilisations of the eastern Mediterranean succumbed.<\/p>\n

On the negative side, Ramesses\u2019 urge to father a dynasty had the unintended consequence of destabilising the line of succession in subsequent generations, when countless royal offspring emerged as possible claimants to the throne. (Ramesses himself outlived three of his designated heirs, eventually being succeeded by his 13th son, Merenptah.)<\/p>\n

Yet, for all the triumphs and failures, Ramesses II\u2019s own reputation, so assiduously promoted during his long years on the throne, endured for centuries. Like rulers before and since, he created his own myth, adjusting the facts to suit his desired narrative. It is surely Ramesses\u2019 achievements as a self-propagandist, given concrete form through an astonishing architectural legacy, that justify his claim to greatness.<\/p>\n